The ancient Egyptian civilization lasted for over 3,000 years and became one of the most powerful and iconic civilizations in history. At its height, ancient Egypt's empire stretched as far north as modern-day Syria and as far south as today's Sudan. But long before it was an empire, ancient Egypt was a series of small, independent city-states that bloomed along North Africa's Nile River. The city-states were divided into two regions and named according to the flow of the Nile: Upper Egypt in the south, which was upstream, and Lower Egypt in the north, which was downstream. By about 3100 BC, the two halves united, thereby creating one Egyptian state that lasted for millennia.
The reign of the civilization can be divided into three major periods of prosperity, called the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms, and two periods of instability in between, called the 1st and 2nd Intermediate Periods. Guiding the Egyptian people was a succession of about 300 rulers, referred to as Pharaohs. "Pharaoh," which means "great house" in Egyptian, was never the ruler's formal title; it only became synonymous with the ruling individual in modern times, thanks to its use in the Hebrew Bible. These rulers, who were not always men nor Egyptian, were considered protectors of the people and served as divine liaisons between humanity and the hundreds of gods they worshipped.
After the rulers passed away, ancient Egyptians believed they then became gods. To prepare for their journey into the afterlife, the rulers constructed elaborate tombs, including the Great Pyramids at Giza and underground mausoleums in the Valley of the Kings. Rulers filled their tombs with all the items they might need in the afterlife, including gold, jewelry, food, drink, and even pets. Preparing for this journey to the gods also involved mummifying one's body. The deceased's corpse was embalmed, wrapped in hundreds of yards of linen, and placed inside the tomb so the body could be reanimated in the afterlife.
To this day, structures like the Great Pyramids are a testament to the role of religion in ancient Egyptians' lives, but they also represent the innovative and cultural might of the Egyptian people. Innovations in mathematics and written language, in particular, propelled their civilization to success. Math, specifically measurement mathematics, helped the Egyptians understand and harness the world with numbers like no other civilization had before. They developed a new form of measurement called the cubit, which was used to design massive structures such as the Great Pyramid with remarkable geometrical precision. The Egyptians also measured time by combining mathematics with astronomy. They established a 24-hour division of the day and created a solar calendar, which was the first dating system in history to feature 365 days in one year.
Lastly, Egyptians developed methods to measure and survey land around the Nile River. These civil engineering feats paved the way for the construction of dams, canals, and irrigation systems that helped farming and agriculture flourish in the Nile Valley. In addition to mathematical concepts, the ancient Egyptians also created written languages to describe the world around them. The oldest and probably most well-known of these is hieroglyphic writing. This system was developed around 3150 BC during the Old Kingdom and has over 700 pictorial characters. It was used to inscribe monuments and pottery and predominantly served a decorative or ceremonial purpose.
Soon after, another ancient form of writing, called Hieratic, developed out of the hieroglyphic system. It was a form of cursive that was written in ink and served a more functional purpose. Unlike its more formal predecessor, Hieratic was written on another ancient Egyptian innovation, papyrus. Papyrus was a type of paper derived from the papyrus plant, which grew plentifully along the Nile River. This medium gave the ancient Egyptians a new avenue of communication and record-keeping that allowed their civilization's administrative skill to grow and their culture to spread for thousands of years.
As with all great empires, ancient Egypt came to an end. It was eventually conquered after a series of invasions, including those by the Persian Empire in the 4th century BC and the Roman Empire around 30 BC. Not many civilizations can claim a lifespan of over 3,000 years, let alone one that made vast cultural contributions that still resonate in modern times. Ancient Egypt, with its linguistic and mathematical innovations, spirituality and religion, and extensive political and military might, set a high standard for all civilizations that followed.
Source:
National Geographic. (2017, December 17). Ancient Egypt 101 | National Geographic [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hO1tzmi1V5g